monthly income is nominal or ordinalstricklin-king obituaries

Go Digit General Insurance Limited (formerly known as Oben General Insurance Ltd.) - Registered Office Address - 1 to 6 floors, Ananta One (AR One), Pride Hotel Lane, Narveer Tanaji Wadi, City Survey No.1579, Shivaji Nagar, Pune-411005, Maharashtra | Corporate Office Address - Atlantis, 95, 4th B Cross Road, Koramangala Industrial Layout, 5th Block, Bengaluru-560095, Karnataka | Trade logo of Go Digit General Insurance Ltd. displayed above belongs to Go Digit lnfoworks Services Private Limited and is provided and used by Go Digit General Insurance Ltd. under license. Revised on Digit Insurance is not promoting or recommending anything here. To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader. Ordinal, I suggest, means "can be placed in a definite and repeatable order" and doesn't exclude that order being circular. Perhaps our respondents feel Neutral represents 1.5 or 2.5 points. The simple flowchart below shows how to classify a variable. That suggests some kinds of measurement (like temperature) may be. Individual Income Tax Rates and Shares, 2002, Pages 910. There is no weight in saying that there is a circularity in months. and therefore country is a nominal variable. MathJax reference. A true zero means there is an absence of the variable of interest. But I was taken aback at the intimation that the nature of a scale might depend on whether people had invented a zero. Copyright 2018, Campbell R. Harvey. Alternative to 'stuff' in "with regard to administrative or financial _______. "Topic No. These include white papers, government data, original reporting, and interviews with industry experts. declval<_Xp(&)()>()() - what does this mean in the below context? (function() { var qs,js,q,s,d=document, gi=d.getElementById, ce=d.createElement, gt=d.getElementsByTagName, id="typef_orm", b="https://embed.typeform.com/"; if(!gi.call(d,id)) { js=ce.call(d,"script"); js.id=id; js.src=b+"embed.js"; q=gt.call(d,"script")[0]; q.parentNode.insertBefore(js,q) } })(). What Is Unearned Income and How Is It Taxed? Disclaimer:This information is added only for informative purposes and collected from different sources across the Internet. Ordinary income is any type of income thats taxable at ordinary rates. completion': 'previous Statement from SO: June 5, 2023 Moderator Action, Starting the Prompt Design Site: A New Home in our Stack Exchange Neighborhood. Thank you. For example, I've a variable "nationality" and the answers in my data are. multiplication is not meaningful for interval variables. Is the month ordinal or nominal variable? Deductions can reduce the amount of ordinary income subject to tax. Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data. @mdewey It will most definitely come as a surprise to me if after December 2019 it became January 2019. Also, zero kilos corresponds to nothing with regard to weight. Real income is adjusted for inflation; it is not the case with nominal income or nominal wage. Form 10-K: Target Corporation. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. For example, income is a variable that can be recorded on an ordinal or a ratio scale: If you have a choice, the ratio level is always preferable because you can analyse data in more ways. A short-term gain is a capital gain realized by the sale or exchange of a capital asset that has been held for exactly one year or less. with the following answer categories:if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[120,600],'spss_tutorials_com-banner-1','ezslot_2',109,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-spss_tutorials_com-banner-1-0');if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[120,600],'spss_tutorials_com-banner-1','ezslot_3',109,'0','1'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-spss_tutorials_com-banner-1-0_1'); .banner-1-multi-109{border:none !important;display:block !important;float:none !important;line-height:0px;margin-bottom:15px !important;margin-left:auto !important;margin-right:auto !important;margin-top:15px !important;max-width:100% !important;min-height:600px;padding:0;text-align:center !important;}. (2022, December 05). You can learn more about the standards we follow in producing accurate, unbiased content in our. Yes, individuals need to evaluate real earnings in physical units and nominal earnings in monetary terms. Ratio In this post, we define each measurement scale and provide examples of variables that can be used with each scale. You can't seriously dispute (discuss) the order of these values. An order like. Overview of How It's Taxed, costs attributable to the production of goods sold, selling, general, and administrativeexpenses, Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 (JGTRRA), the tax on most dividendincome, along with some capital gains, Publication 525 Taxable and Nontaxable Income, Know the Tax Facts About Renting Out Residential Property, Publication 550, Investment Income and Expenses, Individual Income Tax Rates and Shares, 2002, H.R.2 Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003, Rental Income and Expenses - Real Estate Tax Tips. Levels of measurement: Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio. Then the first variable defines groups and the second variable defines groups within those groups. There are four main levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. As a consequence, This is illustrated by the figure below. The brackets are coded with numbers . Net investment income (NII) is the total of payments received from assets such as bonds, stocks, and mutual funds, loans, minus the related expenses. There are 4 levels of measurement, which can be ranked from low to high: If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the Cite this Scribbr article button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator. Ratio level: You collect data on the exact annual incomes of your participants. It is useful to distinguish dichotomous variables as a separate measurement level because they require different analyses than other variables: Categorical variables are variables on which This classification distinguishes 3 main categories which we'll briefly discuss. Third-party premium has changed from 1st June. We'll then explore the four levels of measurement in detail, providing some examples of each. rev2023.6.27.43513. If this customer service employee has no other income sources, then $36,000 is the amount that would be taxed on their year-end tax return as gross income. There is a hierarchy in the complexity and precision of the level of measurement, from low (nominal) to high (ratio). Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. Good software arranges that dates are shown conventionally, but calculations are based on integers on a defined scale. At a ratio level, you can see that the difference between A and Bs incomes is far greater than the difference between B and Cs incomes. Examples of interval scales include the temperature in degrees Celsius and the IQ scale. Mutual Funds: Monthly income earned on all investments in mutual funds.14. From low to high, these are. how did you like your food? The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which Investopedia receives compensation. Government and Agency Related Issues: Monthly income earned on all investments in CMOs/REMICs backed by the government or government-sponsored enterprises (e.g., Government National Mortgage Association - GNMA, etc.).11. Please verify the information before making any decisions. The case of month is interesting. How Capital Gains and Dividends Are Taxed Differently. !== -1 ? I read in some article that the month of the year was being considered as qualitative nominal variable, but for me the month of the year has a clearly ordered structure and should therefore be considered as qualitative ordinal. .replace('INR ','')).split('. 158. Number of employees as ratio as well as ordinal variable. Deductible expenses include mortgage interest, property tax, repair costs, advertising, maintenance and cleaning, condo fees, and homeowners insurance. Could you develop your understanding in another answer? monthly or daily measurements, so too time can be regarded as continuous: 2017.5 is well defined as half-way through 2017. And since we don't know if Neutral represents 1.5, 2 or 2.5 points, The company claimed that the costs attributable to the production of goods sold (COGS) were $54.9 billion. The "higher" the measurement level, the more information a variable holds. Copy and paste multiple symbols separated by spaces. This compensation may impact how and where listings appear. That is: interval and ratio variables are metric variables. from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/stats/measurement-levels/, Levels of measurement: Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio. precedes December precedes January, with roughly the same distance (elapsed time) between each. ')[0] | rupeeFormatWithComma}} Browse other questions tagged, Start here for a quick overview of the site, Detailed answers to any questions you might have, Discuss the workings and policies of this site. Different orders make sense for a list of countries. Internal Revenue Service. Nominal income does not consider inflation rates while calculating an entity's or individual's earnings. Examples of nominal scales include gender (male, female) and color (blue, yellow, red, green, etc.). Switches in chain topology for ~40 devices. Dichotomous variables have precisely two distinct values. Examples of ratio scales include body height and monthly income. - whuber Know the Tax Facts About Renting Out Residential Property. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. Daniel Liberto is a journalist with over 10 years of experience working with publications such as the Financial Times, The Independent, and Investors Chronicle. 5 December 2022. We distinguish between four levels of measurement:nominal scales (non-metric or categorical),ordinal scales (non-metric or categorical),interval scales (metric), and ratio scales (metric). Whenever in physical or environmental science (for example) something varies continuously with time, so we have (e.g.) In theory, January 2018 can be distinct from January 2019 in every conceivable way. So at the end of December does it come as a surprise to you when it becomes January? to scientific standards. But distinguishing these as separate measurement levels -all textbooks still do- is pointless. Ordinal level: You create brackets of income ranges: $0-$19,999, $20,000-$39,999, and $40,000-$59,999. nominal ordinal interval ratio Show transcribed image text Geometry nodes - Material Existing boolean value, '90s space prison escape movie with freezing trap scene. Ignoring leap days, years are a fixed unit of measurement for time. Type a symbol or company name. But prices in dollars -representing amounts of money- obviously do have an undisputable order and hence are not nominal. Ordinarily it's none of the above. But zero degrees is defined differently depending on the scale it doesnt mean an absolute absence of temperature. You don't give a precise reference and you don't report the argument, so further comment on that view is difficult for me. The history of mathematics makes clear that ratios were well understood before people had a clear concept of zero. Publication 525 Taxable and Nontaxable Income. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. ? 'Continue Browsing' : 'Continue with your previous choice'}}, {{healthCtrl.lastVisitedData.relationData}}, Age of eldest {{healthCtrl.lastVisitedData.selfMaxAge ? In many applications it would be considered a coarse, +1. Factor in depreciationandamortization as well, and you get an ordinary income, or operating income, of $4.66 billion. It is also known as real wage when denoting the inflation-adjusted earnings of an individual. Those changes encouraged investing and prompted companies to increase dividends or begin paying dividends instead of holding onto their cash. Bhandari, P. Well, any order makes equal sense, right? .replace('INR ', '')).split('. Some variables have fixed levels. Without the crucial knowledge of which year the months correspond to, months cannot be ordered. The best of the best: the portal for top lists & rankings: Strategy and business building for the data-driven economy: In statistics, depending on the kind of data we ascertain, we use different kinds of scales. Hence, it does not represent the well-being of an individual. that imply how to analyze them. Enter valid registration Scribbr. We thus arrive at the table as shown below. Do axioms of the physical and mental need to be consistent? Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio. For private individuals, ordinary income typically consists of the salaries and wages that they earn from their employers before taxes. by Examples of nominal data include: Gender, ethnicity, eye colour, blood type Brand of refrigerator/motor vehicle/television owned Nominal wage is the amount an individual earnsreal wage is the actual purchasing power of the individual. In a corporate setting, ordinary income comes from regular day-to-day business operations, excluding income gained from selling capital assets. Measurement Levels - Classical Approach Quick Overview of Measurement Levels Internal Revenue Service. I find it hard to believe that there are grounds for regarding year or month as qualitative. Lea Uradu, J.D. This type of income differs from capital gains in . For a more complete overview of analyses by measurement level, see SPSS Data Analysis - Basic Roadmap. ", NFS4, insecure, port number, rdma contradiction help. When the symbol you want to add appears, add it to Watchlist by selecting it and pressing Enter/Return. Going from lowest to highest, the 4 levels of measurement are cumulative. Circular scales usually need care and attention, so for example the mean of directions 1 degree (just East of North) and 359 degrees (just West of North) is not sensibly 180 degrees (South). Some may argue that Bad = 1 point, Neutral = 2 points and Good = 3 points. Or perhaps we'd like to know if a categorical variable and a metric variable are associated. Or we could test if the population means differ by category with ANOVA. There are exceptions, though, including for long-term capital gains and qualified dividends, which are both taxed at more favorable rates. Typical examples are sex, owning a car or carrying HIV. Therefore, nominal and ordinal variables are categorical variables. We also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate. Monthly rainfall: 2.4 in, 2.7 in, 3 in, 3.3 in, and 3.6 in Choose the correct answer below. Nominal and ordinal are non-metric or categorical scales, that is, their response values are not directly usable as a numerical value.Interval and ratio scales are metric scales that allow for various arithmetic operations. As mandated by Spanish Authorities your travel insurance needs to extend 15 days after your trip ends.We will extend your coverage period accordingly. The simple flowchart below shows how to classify a variable. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. The higher the level of measurement, the more precise your data is. The climate doesn't believe you, nor does anything or anybody that responds to seasonality. Monthly income means gross monthly income of the parent or parents residing with the child and the income of adults in the household who are included in the calculation of household size as provided in ARM 37.80.202. countries don't have an undisputable order But that's just a wild guess. is a Maryland State Registered Tax Preparer, State Certified NotaryPublic, Certified VITA Tax Preparer, IRS Annual Filing Season Program Participant, and Tax Writer. So let's say we asked respondents in which country they live and the answers are, So what's the correct order for these countries? Regular dividends paid out to shareholders of for-profit companiesusually qualify for taxation at the reduced capital gains rate, but investors must adhere to minimum holding periods to take advantage. Do not reproduce without explicit permission. Nate has a \$ 5 $5 bill and a \$ 10 $10 bill. So the order is undisputable and this rating is therefore an ordinal variable. Internal Revenue Service. Because of these reasons, we think the classification below is much more helpful. Income Tax vs. Capital Gains Tax: Differences, Direct Tax Definition, History, and Examples, Gift Tax Explained: What It Is and How Much You Can Gift Tax-Free, State Income Tax: What It Is, How It Works, States Without One, Understanding Tax Brackets: Examples, Pros, and Cons, Wealth Tax: Definition, Examples, Pros & Cons, Withholding Tax Explained: Types and How It's Calculated. Internal Revenue Service. 404 Dividends." Cookies collect information about your preferences and your devices and are used to make the site work as you expect it to, to understand how you interact with the site, and to show advertisements that are targeted to your interests. Real wage represents the purchasing power of an individual, A nominal wage indicates only the earnings of an individual. Quiz: Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio? In CP/M, how did a program know when to load a particular overlay? These symbols will be available throughout the site during your session. Obligations of U.S. Government Sponsored Enterprises: Monthly income earned on all investments (except mortgage-backed pass through securities) in U.S. Government sponsored enterprises (e.g., Federal National Mortgage Association - FNMA, etc.)3. Given a planet map, can plate tectonics be determined? Recall that zero took some time to be accepted as a basic mathematical idea. *Required field. What Are the 7th Pay Commission Leave Rules in India? Do physical assets created directly from GPLed, copyleft digital designs (not programs or libraries) acquire the same license? At an ordinal level, however, you only know the income bracket for each participant, not their exact income. Notable exceptions include interest earned from a Series EE or Series I bond issued after 1989 thats used to pay qualified higher educational expenses, interest on insurance dividends left on deposit with theU.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, and interest on some bonds used to finance government operations. Levels of measurement, also called scales of measurement, tell you how precisely variables are recorded. bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.dropOffGrossPremium:bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.chosePlan.grossPremium) Terms & Conditions, {{healthCtrl.lastVisitedData.dropOffPolicyHolderData ? 'payment completion': 'previous choice'}}, {{bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.vehicle.makeModel | toTitleCase}} The income of a parent not residing with the child shall be counted as monthly income under this chapter only in cases where such parent's income is available to support the . It's not even essential to regard year as discrete. 407 Business Income. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. Categorical variables are variables on which. (bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.vehicleCharacteristics.vehicleType | toTitleCase)}}, {{bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.vehicle.licensePlateNumber}}, {{bikeCtrl.selectedPlanDisplay[bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.dropOffSelectedPlan? Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. Definition, Formula, Calculation, and Example, Modified Adjusted Gross Income (MAGI): Calculating and Using It. I agree that there is, in some sense, an order to months but the order or relative positions (without the years the months correspond to) provide no information on their own. are simplified explanations of terms. Evidently it's just a convention to start with January: we all know at least a little about calendars associated with particular religions or say academic, financial and hydrological years. Shall I treat vegetation group as an ordinal or nominal variable? U.S. Congress. From low to high, these are nominal variables; ordinal variables; interval variables; ratio variables. Although you can rank the top 5 Olympic medallists, this scale does not tell you how close or far apart they are in number of wins. Topic No. Since you cannot say exactly how much each income differs from the others in your data set, you can only order the income levels and group the participants. Share By Cvent Guest In marketing research, as well as other forms of social, economic and business research, interval and ratio data are king. What is Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA)? 18% GST), Health Insurance for Disabled & HIV/AIDS Patients, Comprehensive vs Third Party Bike Insurance, Directors and Officers Liability Insurance, Contractors Plant and Machinery Insurance. number, (Incl "Instructions for Form 1099-DIV." Directly accessible data for 170 industries from 150+ countries Now, countries may be represented by numbers (1 = Netherlands, 2 = Belgium and so on) in SPSS or some other data format. Is nominal, ordinal, & binary for quantitative data, qualitative data, or both? Most of the income you make will be taxed at the regular marginal tax rates. You can find out more about our use, change your default settings, and withdraw your consent at any time with effect for the future by visiting Cookies Settings, which can also be found in the footer of the site. But country is still a nominal variable because what's represented by these numbers -countries- does not have an undisputable order.if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[320,50],'spss_tutorials_com-box-4','ezslot_10',108,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-spss_tutorials_com-box-4-0');if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[320,50],'spss_tutorials_com-box-4','ezslot_11',108,'0','1'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-spss_tutorials_com-box-4-0_1'); .box-4-multi-108{border:none !important;display:block !important;float:none !important;line-height:0px;margin-bottom:7px !important;margin-left:auto !important;margin-right:auto !important;margin-top:7px !important;max-width:100% !important;min-height:50px;padding:0;text-align:center !important;}. You ought therefore to consider whether this is even a useful question to ask. Nominal Income. A zero on a test is arbitrary; it does not mean that the test-taker has an absolute lack of the trait being measured. algebra. When the symbol you want to add appears, add it to My Quotes by selecting it and pressing Enter/Return. Stack Exchange network consists of 182 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow, the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. Long-term capital gains and qualified dividends are taxed differently and not considered to be ordinary income. Your comment will show up after approval from a moderator. A year variable with values such as 2018 is evidently quantitative and numeric (I don't distinguish between those) and ordered (2018 > 2017 > 2016) and also interval in so far as differences such as 2017 $-$ 1947 are well defined (as indeed we all know from childhood in working with people's ages). Circular scales are all around you. A full and busy statistically-based career could conceivably include no need to work with circular scales, but, seasons: spring, summer, autumn (fall), winter. Internal Revenue Service. Ordinal data refers to data that can be categorized and also ranked according to some kind of order or hierarchy (e.g. 409 Capital Gains and Losses. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. {{bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.vehicle.variant? Get quick analyses with our professional research service. 'payment is possible that some definitions do not adhere entirely Real income is the inflation-adjusted earnings of an entity, individual or nation. is ordinal. So now we see how measurement levels help us choose the right analyses. Target also said it forked out $16.2 billion on selling, general, and administrativeexpenses (SG&As). Are Dividends Considered Passive or Ordinary Income? Investopedia does not include all offers available in the marketplace. Examples of unqualified dividends include those paid out by real estate investment trusts (REITs), income paid on employee stock options (ESOs), and dividends paid by tax-exempt companies and on savings accounts or money market accounts. H.R.2 Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. Thanks for contributing an answer to Cross Validated! Is "Clorlina" a name of a person in Spain or Spanish-speaking regions? The difference between any two adjacent temperatures is the same: one degree. are some basic examples. and over 1Mio. Rental income, defined by the IRS as any payment you receive for the use or occupation of property is generally taxed as ordinary income. Expired. A capital gains tax is a levy on the profit that an investor makes from the sale of an investment such as stock shares. Please note that the definitions in our statistics encyclopedia Internal Revenue Service. Within those groups, we'll inspect descriptive statistics over our metric variable. calculations on ordinal variables are not meaningful. Let's now take a closer look at what these variable types really mean with some examples. This is a matter of convenience rather than a denial of fact. "Publication 550, Investment Income and Expenses." Intervals between answer categories are unknown for ordinal variables. As we've discussed, nominal data is a categorical data type, so it describes qualitative characteristics or groups, with no order or rank between categories. Our goal is to make Many, perhaps most, ordinal scales are invented for the purpose. Real income is the inflation-adjusted earnings of an entity, individual or nation. (Incl 18% GST), Continue with {{twoWheelerCtrl.lastVisitedData.lastVisitedUrl.indexOf('DigitPaymentGateway/payments') If I gave you, say sales data with only the respective month, you CANNOT tell me the effect of seasonality because you do not know which data point fell before it and hence you do not know the effect that was brought on by the month/seasonality. First, we need to be clear that monthly dates such as January 2018 are quantitative, numeric, ordered and interval insofar as for the purposes of CV they will generally be handled in terms of a count of months before and after some origin used by particular software. This conversation highlights an interesting distinction. Examples of ordinary income include salaries, tips, bonuses, commissions, rents, royalties, short-term capital gains, unqualified dividends, and interest income. bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.dropOffSelectedPlan: bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.selectedPlan]}}, {{((bikeCtrl.lastVisitedData.dropOffSelectedPlan ? To encourage people to invest long term, the government taxes profits on investments sold after more than a year and most stock dividends held beyond a certain period at a lower rate than ordinary income. Internal Revenue Service. So what's the correct order? Private Mortgage Related Issues: Monthly income earned on all investments in private mortgage related issues (e.g., CMOs/REMICs, pass through, etc.).12. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. @NickCox I agree with you. Any difference between \binom vs \choose? Real Income vs Nominal Income. When measuring the central tendency or variability of your data set, your level of measurement decides which methods you can use based on the mathematical operations that are appropriate for each level. months: December January December January day of year 1 to 365 or 366 (complicated by leap years). In many cases, your variables can be measured at different levels, so you have to choose the level of measurement you will use before data collection begins. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service and acknowledge that you have read and understand our privacy policy and code of conduct. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. 401 Wages and Salaries. Accessed Jan. 6, 2022. Interval variables have a fixed unit of measurement. For example, gender and ethnicity are always nominal level data because they cannot be ranked. In practice (at least in fields I know about) people with monthly data usually treat the months as equally spaced and as equally long, even though that's not quite right. Not every attributeor variablecan be translated to numericalvalues in the same way. Ordinal 3. !== -1 ? (Detail: There was in history, even in retrospect, no year zero; 1 BC/BCE is deemed to have been followed immediately by 1 AD/CE; no one complained at the time if only because the labelling was introduced much later. Real income indicates earnings that an entity or an individual makes after considering inflation rates. We differ four levels of measurement: The nominal scale offers the least statistical information content, the ratio scale the highest. How to Check Sukanya Samriddhi Account Balance? Income that has not been adjusted for inflation and decreasing purchasing power. Nominal C.) Ratio D.) Ordinal C.) Ratio Real earnings are a valuable indicator of an individual's well being as it assesses the number of goods and services bought from that income. Definition, How It's Taxed, and Example, Understanding Earned Income and the Earned Income Tax Credit, What is Gross Income? Depending on the level of measurement, you can perform different descriptive statistics to get an overall summary of your data and inferential statistics to see if your results support or refute your hypothesis. Measurement levels refer to different types of variables choice'}}, {{twoWheelerCtrl.lastVisitedData.vehicle.make |toTitleCase}} With years, saying an event took place before or after a given year has meaning on its own. Internal Revenue Service. Interval variables have a fixed unit of measurement Am I right? Interval variables are always analyzed similarly to ratio variables -which we'll turn to next.

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