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According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. Still intact in good condition after some 750 years, it has been described by the UNESCO committee as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world".[71]. Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called terma (Tibetan: gTer-ma). Johannes Bronkhorst, Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism Handbook of Oriental Studies (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 4647. Barbara O'Brien is a Zen Buddhist practitioner who studied at Zen Mountain Monastery. Buddha biographies include the Mahvastu of the Lokottaravadin school, the northern tradition's Lalitavistara Stra, the Theravada Nidnakath and the Dharmaguptaka Abhinikramaa Stra.[39][40]. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest known manuscripts are from late in the fifteenth century,[50] and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[51]. However, according to Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in the production of these texts. Its arrangement reflects the importance that the early followers attached to the monastic life (Pali and Sanskrit: Vinaya), to the discourses of the Buddha (Pali: Sutta), and subsequently to the interest in scholasticism (Pali: Abhidhamma). [7], The concept of buddhavacana (word of the Buddha) is important in understanding how Buddhists classify and see their texts. For example, the Pli Canon was preserved in Sri Lanka where it was first written down in the first century BCE. Some of the well known preserved Pali Canons are the Chattha Sangayana Tipitaka, Buddha Jayanthi Tripitaka, Thai Tipitaka, etc. This stra contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. [32][33] The Theravada chronicle called the Dipavamsa states that during the reign of Valagamba of Anuradhapura (2917 BCE) the monks who had previously remembered the Tipiaka and its commentary orally now wrote them down in books, because of the threat posed by famine and war. Sanderson, Alexis. These are attributed to scholars working in Sri Lanka such as Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) and Dhammapala. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahyna sutras. [17] The Theravdin Dpavasa, for example, records that the Mahsghikas had no abhidharma. These are different books from the Pali ones though there are some common material and ideas. The Buddha within: Tathagatagarbha doctrine according to the Shentong interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhaga. Due to the popularity of the novel, the term "snzng" is often erroneously understood as a name of the monk Xuanzang. What is contained in the Tripitaka? The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. Later post-canonical Abhidharma works were written as either large treatises (stra), as commentaries (ahakath) or as smaller introductory manuals. Therefore, the canonical Abhidharma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of later Buddhists. 2 Who wrote Jatakas? The literal translation is the "three baskets", so named because the original writings were kept in baskets. and his followers, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost, subcommentaries on most of these and sometimes even further layers. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. [30], The Pli Canon is the complete Tripiaka set maintained by the Theravda tradition as written and preserved in Pali. Tripitaka The Tripitaka (or Tipitaka) is the Sanskrit (or Pali) canon of religious discourse most highly regarded in Theravada Buddhism. The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads," or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. [23] About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical. Early Buddhist History: The First Five Centuries, Romantic Love and Marriage in the Buddhist Tradition, King Milinda's Questions and the Chariot Simile. How is it possible for mantle rock to flow? Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. [4], The Canon was printed in the nineteenth century, and most of it is now available in electronic form. [59] By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian, Yijing, and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahyna' as well as monasteries where both Mahyna monks and non-Mahyna monks lived together. It should be remembered that Buddhism is not a "revealed" religion meaning it's scriptures are not assumed to be the revealed wisdom of a God. Dhammapala, who probably came from southern India, is credited with the writing of numerous commentaries, including the Paramattha dipani (Pali: Elucidation of the True Meaning), a commentary on several books of the Khuddaka nikaya. Learn Religions. This was often done by traveling overland to India, as recorded in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, by the monk Xuanzang (c. 602664), who also wrote a commentary on Yogacara which remained influential, the Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed. This is a massive Mahayana Buddhist treatise and commentary on the Prajpramit sutra in Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and it has been extremely important in the development of the major Chinese Buddhist traditions. Q: The SDG India index is developed by A) Ministry of Environmental, Forests and Climate Change B) Ministry of Home Affairs ).[29]. The Tibetan Canon underwent a final compilation in the 14th century by Buton Rinchen Drub. The Gilgit manuscripts may contain gamas from the Mlasrvstivda school in Sanskrit. Although the Abhidharma is traditionally attributed to the historical Buddha, it probably was composed at least a century after his death by an unknown author. [16] Olivelle, Patrick (2008). [39] It is likely that Zhisheng's catalogue proved decisive because it was used to reconstruct the Canon after the persecutions of 845 CE; however, it was also considered a "perfect synthesis of the entire four-hundred-year development of a proper Chinese form of the Canon."[40]. Class 10. An Abhidharma Piaka of the Sarvstivda school survives, also in seven books, six in Chinese and one in Tibetan. There are two Sanskrit versions of the Vinaya, called the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya (followed in Tibetan Buddhism) and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (followed in other schools of Mahayana Buddhism). The Earliest Collection of Buddhist Scripture. eventually, as time went by they (the Buddhists) improved it. Each school had its own canonical collection that differed somewhat from others in the contents of particular texts, which texts it included, and the ordering of texts within the canon. The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (piaka, basket) in Pali: Answer and Explanation: Become a Study.com member to unlock this answer! There many different genres or classes of Mahyna sutras, such as the Prajpramit stras, the Tathgatagarbha stras and the Pure Land stras. Various other authors of the Madhyamaka school followed him and wrote commentaries to his texts or their own treatises. three baskets), Tipiṭaka (Pāli) is the formal term for a Buddhist canon of scriptures. Un grand disciple du Buddha: Sriputra. they wrote about lifeWhat were some of the things the Maya wrote about? The Dhyna sutras (Chan-jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the Sarvastivada school along with some early proto-Mahayana meditations. This corpus includes commentaries and other works written in Pali in Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia, as well as many important texts written in Sinhalese, Burmese, Thai, Laotian, and Khmer. [1], Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Sdhanaml is a collection of sadhanas. His Abhidhammavatara (Pali: The Coming of the Abhidhamma), though a summary of the older works on the Abhidhamma Pitaka, is one of the most important commentaries on the basket. While Buddhadattas ideas were similar to those of Buddhaghosha, he did not follow Buddhaghosha blindly. All three sections of the canon contain, as well, an abundance of legends and other narratives. [1] These texts were collected into various collections and translated into other languages such as Buddhist Chinese (fjio hny ) and Classical Tibetan as Buddhism spread outside of India. In Theravda Buddhism, the standard collection of buddhavacana is the Pli Canon, also known as the Tripiaka ("three baskets"). In the Paramattha manjusa (Pali: Jewel Box of the True Meaning), a commentary on Buddhaghoshas Visuddhimagga, Dhammapala quotes a verse from the Hindu scripture Bhagavadgita and frequently mentions the views of other schools and teachers. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial, and pseudo-canonical. Harivarman When was Tripitaka written? Kkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism, and these are influential in Japanese Shingon Buddhism. This collection, unlike the Pli Tripiaka, contains Mahyna stras, stras (scholastic treatises), and Esoteric Buddhist literature. Charles D. Orzech. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the "Jatakas", or birth stories. Question. There is also the encyclopedic Abhidharma Mahvibha stra (Taish Tripiaka 1545), which was held as canonical by the Vaibhika Sarvstivdins of northwest India. A monk named Upali recited the Buddha's rules for monks and nuns from memory, and the Buddha's cousin and attendant,Ananda, recited the Buddha's sermons. This canon was committed to writing in the 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka. How can you tell is a firm is incorporated? Kidd, Sophie Francis (translator). Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between buddhavacana "word of the Buddha," many of which are known as "sutras", and other texts, such as "shastras" (treatises) or "Abhidharma". The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language. However, some individual texts have survived, such as the listamba Stra (rice stalk stra). The correct answer is Dipa vansa. Aside from the Sutras and the Vinayas, some schools also had collections of "minor" or miscellaneous texts. In the diverse schools of Mahayana Buddhism, a mixed attitude to the Tripiaka developed. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices; Peter Harvey. What is the temperature inside Miller Park. [1][14] These texts were later compiled into canons and written down in manuscripts. orally (by mouth). The five precepts (Sanskrit: pacala; Pali: pacasla) or five rules of training (Sanskrit: pacaikapada; Pali: pacasikkhapada) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay people.They constitute the basic code of ethics to be respected by lay followers of Buddhism. [3] Passed down to other Theravadin countries, this Ceylonese Canon is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down. The Blue Annals (Standard Tibetan: deb ther sngon po) completed in 1476CE, authored by Glo Zhnnupel (Tibetan: gos lo gzhon nu dpal, 13921481), is a historical survey of Tibetan Buddhism with a marked ecumenical view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout Tibet.[77]. [31] At the other end of the debate, Dr. Gregory Schopen, Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin, argues that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries C.E. The following works are included in the Sixth Council edition of the Canon,[21] including the new transcript from Thailand. The contents of the Tripitaka fall into three general groupings, which are as follows: Throughout history, many versions of the Tripitaka have existed, containing different texts. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Zhisheng introduced the basic six-fold division with sutra, vinaya, and abhidharma belonging to Mahyna, Pratyekabuddhayana and Sravakayana . Looking at things from the other side, the bulk of the Chinese and Tibetan canons consists of Mahayana sutras and tantras, which, apart from a few tantras,[59] have no equivalent in the Pali Canon. Awakening of Faith. Title (short form) Apocryphal Scriptures. [21] These included a Bodhisattva Piaka and a Mantra Piaka (Ch. Various texts are also said to have received by Asanga from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including works such as Madhyntavibhga, the Mahyna-strlamkra, and the Abhisamaylamkara. It also gives an account of the life and ministry of the Buddha. Menander, a well-informed scholar and keen debater, is disheartened when no one is able to resolve problems he raises regarding Buddhist teachings. In East Asian Esoteric Buddhism and its Japanese offshoot, the Shingon school, the most influential tantras are those which focus on Vairocana Buddha, mainly, the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra. The second category, the Stra Piaka (literally "basket of threads," Pli: Sutta Piaka), consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. Paramrtha cites this Bahurutya abhidharma as containing a combination of Hnayna and Mahyna doctrines, and Joseph Walser agrees that this assessment is correct. [8], The Vinaya Piaka appears to have grown gradually as a commentary and justification of the monastic code (Prtimoka), which presupposes a transition from a community of wandering mendicants (the Stra Piaka period) to a more sedentary monastic community (the Vinaya Piaka period). Memorizing, reciting and copying the texts was seen as spiritually valuable. [9][10] These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a sangha, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder.[9][10]. This pitaka can be divided into three parts. Do they have to give members warning before they bar you? The Nyingma school also has unique tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools, the most important of these are the Dzogchen tantras. The Tripitaka is the teachings of the Buddha. [46] This tradition flourished in Cambodia and Thailand before the 19th century reformist movement of Rama IV. Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha's Acts. Journey to the West, Chinese (Pinyin) Xiyouji or (Wade-Giles romanization) Hsi-yu chi, foremost Chinese comic novel, written by Wu Cheng'en, a novelist and poet of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). This creative classification, similar to that of the Sarvastivadins (a Buddhist sectarian group that emerged in the mid-3rd century bce and that affirmed ontological realism), makes Buddhadatta a philosopher in his own right rather than a commentator who merely restates matters in new terms. in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school.. During the First Buddhist Council, three months after the parinibbana of Gautama Buddha in Rajgir, Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka, and Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka. Various scholars of Buddhist studies such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne, and A. K. Warder hold that early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical Buddha himself or at least to the early years of pre-sectarian Buddhism. Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations. How co2 is dissolve in cold drink and why? [5][6]). Only two full canonical Abhidharma collections have survived both containing seven texts, the Theravda Abhidhamma and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which survives in Chinese translation. [31] It is an attempt to best express the Buddhist view of "ultimate reality" (paramartha-satya) without using the conventional language and narrative stories found in the sutras. The Ancient World Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e. [27] The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya is also extant in Chinese translation (Taish Tripiaka 1428), and Buddhist monastics in East Asia adhere to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. The Tripitaka Koreana, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the Mongol invasions of Korea), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century. The former is in about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and the Dhammapada (the latter confusingly called Udanavarga) and of parts of some other books. There are wide differences of opinion among scholars regarding to what extent the teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself.[30]. It includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the first four nikayas, the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka and the Milindapanha and of parts of some other books. In the Tibetan tradition, on the other hand, when attempts are made to explain the application of the term Tripiaka to the Kanjur, the Tibetan canon of scripture, the Abhidharma Piaka is considered as consisting of the Prajpramit. [16], The Bahurutya school is said to have included a Bodhisattva Piaka in their canon. [50], There are various theories of how Mahyna emerged. Today, the Pali Canon is the scriptural canon for Theravada Buddhism. Namtar, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of Tibetan Buddhist texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their life story. Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the Abhidhammattha-sangaha (11th or 12th century), a short 50 page introductory summary to the Abhidhamma, which is widely used to teach Abhidhamma. Dr. Richard Gombrich, Academic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society, argues that the content, as opposed to the form, of large parts of the Canon goes back to the Buddha himself. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. The early Buddhist schools also preserved other types of texts which developed in later periods, which were variously seen as canonical or not, depending on the tradition. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Buddhadatta, a contemporary of Buddhaghosha, was a native of Uragapura, near modern Tiruchchirappalli, in southern India. Chicago: Encyclopdia Britannica, 2008. However, the oldest and most widely-known version is the Pli Canon of the Theravda school described below. Hsieh, Ding-Hwa (2004). Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 . Tripitaka definition, Pali Canon. [51], Mahyna stras are also generally regarded by the Mahyna tradition as being more profound than the rvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. "The aiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of aivism during the Early Medieval Period." What does it mean to call a minor party a spoiled? A troupe of 17 minstrels and singers of ballads in the poetic style of Swaya, the Bhatts descended from the lineage of Hindu bard Bhagirath through ninth generation Raiya and sons, Bhikha, Sokha, Tokha, Gokha, Chokha, and Toda. [54] Buddhist communities such as the Mahsghika school were divided along these doctrinal lines into sub-schools which accepted or did not accept these texts. 4 Are Jataka tales Indian? prajapti), conventional (Skt. earliest surviving buddhist teachings. Another work surviving in Chinese, the riputrbhidharmastra, may be all or part of another Abhidharma Piaka. [60], Mahyna stras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, 'celestial' Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives. 177-181. [72], Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed "action Tantras" (kriy tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras. [13] However, except for one version that has survived in full and others, of which parts have survived, all of these texts are lost to history or yet to be found.[13]. [44], The traditional interpretation is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or fifth century C.E.) Some argue it was Aluvihare in Matale Sri Dhatukatha (dhtukath) Deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books, Puggalapannatti (-paatti) Explanations of types of person, arranged numerically in lists from ones to tens, Kathavatthu (kath-)Over 200 debates on points of doctrine, Yamaka Applies to ten topics a procedure involving converse questions (e.g., Is X Y? didn't actually write things down, they carried the teachings Likewise, different positions have been taken regarding what are the earliest books of the Canon. [29] These "minor" collections seem to have been a category for miscellaneous texts, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early Buddhist schools. A key concept introduced by the Lotus Sutra is the idea that the Buddha is more of an . The contents of the canon said to largely represent the words of the Buddha (born c. 6th-4th century bce) were transmitted orally and first written down in Pali within the Theravadan communities of Sri Lanka probably during the 1st century bce. The Mahavamsa (Pali: Great Chronicle), compiled by Mahanama in the 5th or 6th century, and its continuation in the Chulavamsa (Little Chronicle), compiled from the 13th to the 18th century, show much greater skill in the use of the Pali language and make liberal use of other material. In Buddhism, the word Tripitaka (Sanskrit for "three baskets"; "Tipitaka" in Pali) is the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures. Sri Lanka. However, the general view of what is and is not buddhavacana is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. [66] Some Mahyna texts also contain dhra, which are chants that are believed to have magical and spiritual power. The tripitaka is used by buddhist for guidance reasurance and praise When was the Tripitaka written? Many different versions of the canon have existed throughout the Buddhist world, containing an enormous variety of texts. [50], Several Mahyna stras also depict important Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas Amitabha, Akshobhya and Vairocana, and the bodhisattvas Maitreya, Majusri, Ksitigarbha, and Avalokiteshvara. [22] Therefore, all teachings were viewed by the Prajaptivdins as being of provisional importance, since they cannot contain the ultimate truth. Orally, for around 200 years after the Buddha's death. [12] However, this does not mean that the various sub-schools did not possess their own unique Tripiaka. Johannes Bronkhorst, Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism Handbook of Oriental Studies (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 56. 129-131. The Bhatt compositions honor the gurus and their families. Some of the well known preserved Chinese Canons are the Taisho Tripitaka, Tripitaka Koreana, etc. Who Wrote The Tripitaka? It derives from the Pali and Sanskrit words that mean "Triple Basket," and it has traditionally been used to describe these collections. The texts of the Tripitaka are organized into three major sections the Vinaya-pitaka, containing the rules of communal life for monks and nuns; the Sutra-pitaka, a collection of sermons of the Buddha and senior disciples; and the Abhidharma-pitaka, which contains interpretations and analyses of Buddhist concepts. This abhidharma was translated into Chinese in sixteen fascicles (Taish Tripiaka 1646). [69] Asanga's brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: Trisvabhva-nirdesa, Vimsatika, Trimsika, and the Abhidharmakoa-bhsya. Biography of Tripiaka Master of Great Ci'en Monastery. The Tripiṭaka (Sanskrit त्रिपिटक, lit. Omissions? (originally written on palm leaves) were therefore kept in three baskets (tri-pitaka). The Sarvstivda is therefore the only early school besides the Theravada for which we have a roughly complete Stra Piaka. While it is traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, most scholars now hold it is a Chinese composition.[70]. Can we see pic of female inserting a tampon? Although many versions of the texts of the early Buddhist schools exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language is the Tipiaka (triple basket) of the Theravda school. The term "Tipiaka" or "Tripiaka" refers to the ancient collections of sacred scriptures in Buddhism. Myanmar Version of Buddhist Canon (6th revision): "Tipitaka" redirects here. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article Best Answer Copy The Tripitaka is treated with alot of respect and care as Buddhist people think it incudes all infomation and views to last a life time. [28] Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions. "[50] Early dharmabhanakas (preachers, reciters of these sutras) were influential figures, and promoted these new texts throughout the Buddhist communities. The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. Although a number of other works traditionally have been attributed to Buddhaghoshaincluding the Suttanipata (Pali: Group of Suttas), the Khuddaka-patha (Pali: Collection on Little Readings), the Dhammapada (Pali: Verses on the Dhamma), and the Jatakas (Pali and Sanskrit: Births)modern scholarship indicates that he was not their author. [43], The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by his disciples. They are made up of three categories of teachings: the Vinaya, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma, which address monastic life and conduct, as well as the teachings of the Buddha. Vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline and the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community (sangha). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) [citation needed]. Buddhaghoshas first work probably was the Visuddhimagga (Pali: The Path of Purification), a greatly revered compendium of Theravada teaching. [37] However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana. The Tripitaka Koreana, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the Mongol invasions of Korea), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century.

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