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(2005; e.g., I would recommend my coach to others; I believe that I will be able to transfer my coaching experiences to everyday life). This scale measured self-reflection (six items; pre=.64; post=.69; e.g., I did not often think about my goal) and self-insight (eight items; pre=.76; post=.78; e.g., I was confused about how I really feel about my goal). PubMed The two conditions showed similar diversity in the number of semesters completed (IS condition: M=4.48, SD=2.90; IO condition: M=5.00, SD=2.77) and fields of study (see Supplemental Material B). In S. Greif, H. Mller, & W. Scholl (Eds. After the coaches provided their demographic information, including age, gender, coaching experience, and coach training, they were asked about client change factors and, subsequently, their empathy with regard to a typical coaching client. Coaching as a changeal intervention in organizations: A systematic review of its effectiveness and the mechanisms underlying it. (2014). This decision was based on our Ethics Committee, as a coaching offer should always include empathy. 1) Set Aside Your Assumptions. Frhlich, S. M., & Kuhl, J. Correspondence to When starting as a coach, everyone brings their own personal ideas and philosophies to the table. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. In L. Berkowitz (Ed. Perspective taking instructions and self-other overlap: Different motives for helping. The studies were approved by the Ethics Committee and there is an informed consent from all participants from both studies (this can be provided in German if needed). International Coaching Psychology Review, 5(1), 6380. Other research found that a oneunit increase in burnout score was related to a 1.4 unit increase in risk for hospital admission for mental health problems, . The relationship inventory: A complete resource and guide. For self-congruence, we measured the subjects autonomy need fulfillment before and after. In J. Stiensmeier-Pelster & F. Rheinberg (Eds. The darker and brighter sides of human existence: Basic psychological needs as a unifying concept. (2003). https://doi.org/10.1080/17521882.2016.1143023. Springer International. Academy of Management Review, 37(1), 130151. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42, Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. Empathy is defined as the ability to focus on what other people are thinking and understand how other people see things. In Study 2, we aimed to compare the effect of IO and IS perspective taking on coaching clients. Supporting students with coaching or training depending on their basic psychological needs. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225102. The results revealed a positive effect of imagine-other (but not imagine-self) empathy on these coaching outcome factors. For example, recent research on attachment styles found that attachment anxiety was accompanied by more frequent incivility from colleagues, and was associated with more exhaustion . Routledge/Taylor & Francis. In C. Rauen (Ed. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The many faces of empathy: Parsing empathic phenomena through a proximate, dynamic-systems view of representing the other in the self. She recalled where we had left off and moved my progress forward. ISIO Scale. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(2), 109124. This self-regulation needs to be seen compared to self-control: While self-regulation is about acting according to own values to reach something that wants to be reached, self-control is about an effortful striving for something that should be done (Baumann & Kuhl, 2013) (see also the difference between coaching for compassion versus coaching for compliance; Boaytzis et al., 2012). Imagine-self vs. imagine-other: Further evidence for the distinction between two types of perspective taking with different emotional consequences. Revisioning empathy: Theory, research and practice. (1994). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2005.09.008, Yik, M., Russell, J. Challenges for the theory and practice of business coaching: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Perspective-taking and self-other overlap: Fostering social bonds and facilitating social coordination. As perspective taking is a skill that can be trained (e.g., Atkins, 2013) and was able to be trained in Study 2, an IO perspective training for coaches should be considered. Another limitation of Study 1 is that the self-change items are single items that were only derived from the definition of each construct but are not validated scales. As a consequence, the coachs IO perspective taking leads to more goal-related change and a better coaching outcome. The participants were informed that we wanted to investigate the effects of a single coaching session. Braumandl, I., & Dirscherl, B. ), Other minds: How humans bridge the divide between self and other (pp. In the first study, we asked the coaches about their clients change in self-awareness and goal-related change as well as their empathetic behavior toward their clients. For example, clients who perceive empathic behavior from their coaches, such as when coaches try to understand their clients points of view, are willing to explore personal topics and share these thoughts with the coach. Psychology and Aging, 36(1), 3648. 445472). In light of the theoretical and empirical knowledge on empathy as a change factor in psychotherapy, we hypothesized that coaches would be seen as more empathetic and would facilitate the coaching process more effectively when they tried to perceive the clients world through the clients eyes (IO) instead of referring to their own experiences and ideas (IS). Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886315576407, Goldstein, N. J., Vezich, I. S., & Shapiro, J. R. (2014). 284297). The qualitative raw data that supports the findings of these studies are available upon reasonable request, as this data includes personal information and needs to be securely exchanged due to data-handling restrictions. As people in general are more likely to apply the IS than the IO perspective (Vorauer & Sasaki, 2014), coaches may face difficulties in applying the IO instead of the IS perspective. In Study 2, the IO perspective training trained coaches to articulate IO in terms of paraphrasing and verbalizing the clients thoughts and feelings as well as to avoid articulating own opinions and experiences in terms of IS behavior. Changing places: A dual judgment model of empathy gaps in emotional perspective taking. Libri. Erfolgsfaktoren im Coachingprozess [success factors in the coaching process]. In line with our hypothesis, IO perspective taking by the coach positively affected the clients change in self-awareness, goal-related change, and coaching outcome. The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale of 1 (does not apply at all) to 5 (applies very well). https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886312462236. Advances in research on coaching outcomes. In Study 1, we investigated whether coaches differed in their perception and showing of empathy depending on how important they perceived their clients self-change to be. Stober, D. R. (2006). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 166175. (2006). The results of these variables can be found in Appendix 3. However, the client may only consider information relevant to the company and set their goals according to the expectations of the company (e.g., What do my employees expect from me and how can I address their expectations?). To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The number of perspective taking behaviors (either IO or IS behaviors) was counted and noted by the coaches themselves. Optimization of self-regulation due to motto goals]. More precisely, the coachs IO perspective taking enhances the clients self-awareness, facilitating the exploration of personal wishes and the implementation of resources. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024152. To date, research has suggested that it is not so much specific coach behaviors or techniques that makes coaching effective but common factors such as a good coaching relationship (Behrendt & Greif, 2018; de Haan et al., 2011). The coaching relationship and other common factors in executive coaching outcome. Coaching and psychotherapy. APA Books. The three most common answers per subgroup (i.e., a through c) were analyzed. The coach-athlete relationship is a dynamically changing multifaceted system aimed at maximizing and continuously improving athletes' competitive performance and atachieving the final victory. Also, therapy effectiveness measures for empathy, such as the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (BLRI), define empathy as focusing on the clients point of reference (e.g., My therapist appreciates exactly how the things I experience feel to me) and not the therapists own perspectives and attitudes (e.g., My therapists own attitudes toward things I do or say prevent him/her from understanding me) (Barrett-Lennard, 2015; Kazdin, 2007; Lambert & Barley, 2001). Harvard Business Review Press. ), Handbook of motivational counseling (pp. ), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. The role of empathy in health and social care professionals. Athlete Self-doubt Cohesion Motivation Coping Psychology of poor coaching: athletes' experiences Conceptualizations of quality teaching, like quality coaching, are complex and unquestionably influence how social scientists carryout empirical research 1. As expected, coaches rated their clients self-change high in importance when looking at all means and standard deviations (see Appendix 1). (2012). Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 114. Distinct effects of imagine-other versus imagine-self perspective-taking on prejudice reduction. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50034-2. Personnel Review, 40(1), 2444. A meta-analysis of motivational interviewing process: Technical, relational, and conditional process models of change. 1.1. ), Handbuch Schlsselkonzepte im Coaching (pp. Also, competence (three items; =.58: e.g., My client wants to feel competent in the coaching) and relatedness (three items; =.59: e.g., My client wants to get along well with me as his/her coach) were measured with the same Likert scale. An integrated model of goal-focused coaching: An evidence-based framework for teaching and practice. Due to Bonferroni correction, however, this result cannot be perceived as significant (see Table2). Management Decision, 53(8), 16771697. Watson, J. C. (2001). Note, most change factors were increased via coaching, regardless of condition (IO or IS).Footnote 4 However, the mediation analyses revealed that even after Bonferroni correction, IO significantly positively influenced the clients implicit self-insight, goal-related positive affect, self-regulation, and goal attainment (see Table 2). Because of low reliability (=.36), we excluded the reverse-coded item (final: three items; =.77; e.g., I felt good regarding the relationship with the coach). Thus, coaching is more about fulfilling the need for autonomy, i.e., the need for self-congruency and value-congruency, than the needs for competence or relatedness (Diller et al., 2020; Schiemann et al., 2018). Five participants were excluded because they either did not complete the questionnaires (two people) or did not meet the participation criteria (three psychology students), leaving N=57 clients. Executive coaching in practice: What determines helpfulness for clients of coaching? Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 319338. In other words, clients are better supported in their self-change when coaches show cognitive empathy by paraphrasing and verbalizing the clients thoughts and feelings instead of by exploring their own thoughts and feelings. IO behavior marginally significantly positively influenced the mediator perceived IO behavior, b=.64, SE=0.36, p=.078, [0.07, 1.36]. Watson, J. C. (2007). https://doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000042, Staemmler, F.-M. (2008). In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds. In the IS condition, coaches expressed only IS perspective taking, such as referring to the own perspective or experiences (e.g., Yes, I know how it feels to have it in the back of your head all the time, but then I always think it would be better if it is done). Research summary on the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy outcome. In the first study, we asked coaches about their clients self-change as well as whether they perceived empathy in coaching as important, whether they showed empathy, and whether they showed IO and/or IS empathetic behavior. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000250. Watson, J. C., Steckley, P. L., & McMullen, E. J. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199969470.003.0002, Chapter Setting standards and holding athletes accountable is a great way to raise their levels of performance and maturity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(9), 11591168. Our results indicate that this positive influence on the coaching relationship is only shown if the coach shows IO empathy. The present findings yield initial evidence that IO empathy supports the clients self-change and coaching satisfaction. Working with goals in coaching. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 10(1), 84100. Ickes et al., 1990) research has significantly contributed to the field of empathy by developing a methodological paradigm that attempts to . 158176). In a further step, we subtracted the mean score of the negative items from the mean score of the positive items to get a measure of overall goal-related more positive and less negative affect (rpre=.48, ppre<.001; rpost=.45, ppost<.001). The coaches were asked to fill out an online questionnaire hosted on LimeSurvey version 2.67.3, starting with providing informed consent. This finding is similar to the results of previous therapy research, in which IO empathy was found to positively influence the therapeutic relationship (Bachelor, 1988; Kazdin, 2007; Lambert & Barley, 2001). Psychological Review, 113(4), 862886. Routledge. Empathy is hard work: People choose to avoid empathy because of its cognitive costs. 263271). https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000595. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023980, Zaki, J. Thus, we conducted a second study, in which we manipulated coaches IO and IS behavior to investigate the effect of IO and IS empathy on change factors from the clients perspective. Behrendt, P. (2004). ), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. Similarly, for psychotherapists, empathy is seen as the ability to understand (cognitive) and experience (emotional) the clients feelings without confusing or conflating them with their own feelings and experiences (Atkins, 2013; Staemmler, 2008). The session started with a short introduction to coaching, while the main part of the coaching focused on concretizing and clarifying the clients goal and defining concrete steps for reaching this goal, as supported by a worksheet. Motivation and the theory of current concerns. The three most named goals were planning the future career after their studies (53%), finishing their studies successfully (19%), and being better at time management and self-management with regard to their studies (16%; multiple coding possible). That's according to Steve Chandler, the founder of the Coaching Prosperity . Executive coaching outcome research: The contribution of common factors such as relationship, personality match, and self-efficacy. Journal of Pragmatics, 38, 13851397. Diller, S. J., Mhlberger, C., & Jonas, E. (2016). Interdependence, interaction, and relationships. This identification is crucial, as coaching can only be applied to the right person at the right point in time if one knows under which circumstances coaching is successful (e.g., Grover & Furnham, 2016). Academic Press. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879891. As compensation, the coaches had the opportunity to get the early results via email; for this, they were instructed to send an email to our coaching research email address. Coaching, 7(1), 1838. OBroin, A., & Palmer, S. (2006). Barrett-Lennard, G. T. (2015). Organisationsberatung, Supervision, Coaching, 16(3), 317332. In E. de Haan & C. Sills (Eds. Unpublished doctoral dissertation Retrieved from https://zrm.ch/daten/Dissertation%20Julia%20Weber%20TurningDutyintoJoy_2013.pdf, Weisz, E., & Cikara, M. (2021). Unpublished scale. To measure the coachs empathy as perceived by the client, Barrett-Lennards Relationship Inventory (Barrett-Lennard, 2015) was adapted to the coaching context (16 items; eight positive and eight negative items that are usually subtracted from each other; positive: =.93, e.g., My coach understood exactly how the things I experience feel to me[+]; negative: =.75, e.g., My coach looked at my behavior from his/her own point of view[]). The difference between perceptions of empathy vs. empathic behavior after a person-centered coaching training. Spalding University. Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. Sport Psychology Chapter 7. ), Other minds: How humans bridge the divide between self and others (pp. Diller, S. J., Muehlberger, C., Braumandl, I., & Jonas, E. (2020). Item(s): How much do your clients want to, gain access to themselves and their thoughts and feelings., be more autonomous and feel more in line with their values and themselves., determine their own goal with personal importance., have positive feelings regarding their goal.; feel less inhibited, nervous, and anxious. (); feel more relaxed, goal oriented, and energized., find their own way to reach their goal., IO DVs total / direct / indirect effect, IS DVs total / direct / indirect effect, [0.50, 1.56]/[0.63, 1.49]/[0.12, 0.57], [1.56, 0.50]/[1.74, 0.42]/[0.28, 0.54], [1.45, 1.10]/[1.47, 1.18]/[0.33, 0.40], [1.10, 1.45]/[1.38, 1.25]/[0.09, 0.71], [0.80, 1.32]/[0.94, 1.24]/[0.14, 0.68], [1.32, 0.80]/[1.52, 0.69]/[0.12, 0.57]. (2003). As expected, the more important coaches rated their clients change factors, the more important the coaches rated their own empathy (see Table1). Coaching with Empathy Creating a positive, developmental youth sports environment for your young athletes starts with the coach. Empathy: A social psychological approach. Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803855. Wirkfaktoren im Psychodrama und Transfercoaching [Success factors in psycho dra,a and transfer coaching]. As mentioned in the Discussion of Study 1, there are some limitations when asking coaches about their empathy and the clients self-change. A fourth theoretical implication is the inclusion of other experimental groups: In our research, we investigated two different kinds of empathy (two experimental groups) but did not include a condition in which no empathy was shown (control group). Unpublished coach training concept. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(9), 118. Coaches may even bring preconceived notions about individual teachers based on what others have shared. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271183. Thus, knowledge about the self, such as ones own interests, motivation, and values, is necessary to determine ones goals in coaching (Grant, 2014). The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 49, 153178. 117171). Find Coaches empathy stock images in HD and millions of other royalty-free stock photos, illustrations and vectors in the Shutterstock collection. Motivational interviewing: Helping people change (3rd ed.). Thus, further research should longitudinally examine the whole coaching process. The empathy factor: Empathy as a success factor in each career coaching session. This means that the coachs empathy not only can benefit the relationship but can also facilitate self-change (Watson et al., 2013). Eberly, M. B., Liu, D., & Terence, R. M. (2013). Google Scholar, Bachelor, A. 1 / 25 Flashcards Test Created by mike_champlin Terms in this set (25) Sullivan devised seven communication exercises to promote more effective communication. PLoS One, 11(7). As mentioned before, goal attainment at the end of coaching is a quantitative coaching outcome as coaching goals are set and, therefore, should be achieved during coaching. posture and body position. Looked at differently, in the IO condition, clients perceived more IO behavior (M=8.02, SD=1.02) than IS behavior (M=4.14, SD=2.99), p<.001.However, clients also perceived more IO behavior ((M=7.38, SD=1.61) than IS behavior (M=5.82, SD=2.63), p=.009 in the IS condition. Sport Psych Chapter 8. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039252, Wynn, R., & Wynn, M. (2006). https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000244, Rekalde, I., Landeta, J., & Albizu, E. (2015). In D. Cain & J. Seeman (Eds. Fabi, S., Weber, L. A., & Leuthold, H. (2019). Empathy: A clue for prosocialty and driver of indirect reciprocity. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297237008. Self-regulation through goal setting. In sum, coachs empathy may enable self-change in the client. Pairwise comparisons showed that clients in the IS condition perceived more IS perspective taking (M=5.82, SD=2.63) by their coach than clients in the IO condition (M=4.14, SD=2.99), p=.029. Google Scholar, Barato, J. 6589). The coaches were briefed not to tell the clients about the two variations and to write down during the coaching session some examples of lines they used to show either IO or IS behavior. Schmidt, F. & Thamm, A. However, empathy may benefit more than just the relationship: Empathy may also facilitate self-insight, self-change, and self-regulation (Watson, 2001; Watson et al., 2013) as it can help the client better reflect on their goals, thoughts, and feelings (Behrendt, 2004; Schiemann et al., 2018; Schmidt & Thamm, 2008). To measure the coaches experience of their clients need for self-congruence as a self-change mechanismFootnote 1 in more detail, the German translation of the basic psychological need scale (Deci & Ryan, 2000) was used (two items; =.79: My client wants to be him/herself in coaching and My client wants to freely express his/her own ideas and opinions in coaching). Wondra, J. D., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2015). The focus of coaching research is on the identification of self-change factors in the coaching process. Consulting Psychology Journal, 65(1), 4057. H2b: The effect of IO behavior on the clients change factors. PLoS One, 16(8), e0255071. For their efforts, the coaches received official confirmation of the additional training on perspective taking and credit for their coaching hours. University of Salzburg. To measure situational self-access, we used Quirin and Kuhls (2018) definition of self-access to create one item (with input from Quirin) that assesses situational self-access: Right now, I feel like I know precisely who I am, and what I think, want, need, and feel. Furthermore, the clients degree of self-reflection and self-insight concerning their goals was measured with the Self-Reflection and Insight Scale (Grant et al., 2002), which was adapted in order to have a situational measure (premeasure: Until now; postmeasure: During the coaching). All dependent variables were measured on a 10-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 9 (completely). Sage. To investigate the effects of the two perspective-taking strategies on the coaching process, perspective taking was manipulated (independent variable): The coach showed either IS or IO perspective taking during the whole coaching session. Hogrefe. There was also a significant interaction between condition and the clients perception of the coachs IO or IS behavior, F(1,55)=7.89, p=.007, p2=.13. Wiley. In other words, coaches were asked to fill out what they think clients usually think about self-change in coaching as well as how the coaches usually show empathy. Progress in Brain Research, 156, 419440. An appraisal theory of empathy and other vicarious emotional experiences. She respected my time by not only being punctual but also prepared for our meetings. We predicted that clients would be more satisfied with IO than IS empathy because IO is a better match for the coaching setting: H2a: IO coach behavior should lead to more coaching satisfaction than IS behavior. Thus, IO empathy may also be the preferable strategy for coaching. A trustful relationship is the basis for the client to openly explore and share personal information, emotions, and concerns (Abrams et al., 2003; Mohr & Spekman, 1994; Van Lange & Rusbult, 2012; Wasylyshyn, 2019). Many coaches pride themselves on having high expectations and holding athletes to them. As we and others (e.g., de Haan et al., 2012) have noted, empathy can help the coaching relationship. Comparing two types of perspective taking as strategies for detecting distress amongst parents of children with cancer: A randomised trial. In the second study, we manipulated the coaches IO and IS perspectives and investigated this manipulations influence on the clients with regard to the self-change and coaching satisfaction. All had a career-coaching certificate obtained through 220h of training, including several workshops, a peer-coaching process, and a supervised client-coaching process. Finally, to investigate empathy in coach-athlete dyads across a range of team and individual sports, recent research employed the empathic accuracy paradigm (wherein the capacity to accurately perceive the thoughts and feelings of an individual is measured by comparing the self-reports of that person to the inferences about that person; cf . volume42,pages 1191711935 (2023)Cite this article. The original version of this article was updated to add the Funding Note "Open access funding provided by Paris Lodron University of Salzburg.". New changes in goal setting and task performance. https://doi.org/10.2466/07.09.20.pr0.110.1.3-15, Article ), Management-Diagnostik (pp. ), Organizing through empathy (pp. (2007). These limitations include self-assessments overall: Both coach (Study 1) and client (Study 2) self-scored their experiences instead of working with video-raters or other more objective measures. Most of the coaches (n=198) had completed some form of coach training (see Supplemental Material A). Time with an external supervisor (without knowledge of our research) was provided to the coaches in case they needed extra help that was not related to the perspective-taking strategy. Das Selbststeuerungsinventar [the self-regulation inventory]. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38, 357361. PubMed Central International Coaching Psychology Review, 23, 220247. To foster this self-change, empathy may be an essential factor: Previous research suggests that a coachs empathy is essential for coaching effectiveness (Dagley, 2010; Neukom et al., 2011; Rekalde et al., 2015; Sonesh et al., 2015; Sullivan, 2006). However, the effect decreased when the potential mediator perceived IO behavior was added, b=.37, SE=0.45, p=.415, [0.53, 1.27]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(6), 941960. We decided to ask about the usual client, as we were interested in the norm and we were not able to assess whether the last client process was the best example of their usual coaching. We also measured the clients and coachs personality with the German adaptation of the Ten-Item Personality Inventory (Muck et al., 2007), the clients trait self-access (Self-Access Form; Quirin & Kuhl, 2018), and the coachs trait empathy (Saarbrckener Persnlichkeitsfragebogen; Paulus, 2009, the German version of the IRI by Davis, 1983; Teachers Report Version of the Relationship Inventory; Barrett-Lennard, 2015). The dependent variable means at baseline were comparable in the condition samples. Gregory, J. For example, with regard to the coachs empathy, coach and client ratings have been found to differ (Will et al., 2016). Motivation and Emotion, 38(2), 224234. Kuhl, J., & Fuhrmann, A. According to the obtained findings, it is detected that there is a significant . Mthner, E., Jansen, A., & Bachmann, T. (2005). Psychotherapy, 25(2), 227240. Thus, future research should investigate the role of trait empathy and empathic accuracy in coaching. B., & Levy, P. E. (2011). Athletes said they would try to practice which communication skills? In addition, congruency fosters (8) self-regulation, which is also strongly connected to goal attainment (Day & Unsworth, 2013; Frhlich & Kuhl, 2003). No differences were found for athletes. . The perceived importance of the clients self-change was measured by one item per change factor (change in self-awareness and goal-related change, including goal attainment as a coaching outcome) that was derived from the definitions mentioned in the Introduction (see Appendix 1 with correlations). While goal attainment indicates a self-change on a broader level (Clutterbuck & Spence, 2017; Greif, 2017), there are underlying variables that can better explain self-change. This scale differentiates between IO (three items; =.87; e.g., I try to imagine how they feel in their place; M=8.04, SD=1.47) and IS (three items; =.70; e.g., I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place; M=4.63, SD=2.39) perspectives (The original IRI item: Before criticizing somebody, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place). Manuscript under review. Recent research highlights the success of change approach coaching, which can not only help the client on an individual level but can improve the client's performance as an employee and can contribute to the company's success (Grover & Furnham, 2016; Jones et al., 2015; Theeboom et al., 2014 ). Guilford Publications. Psychologist Peter Sear Ph.D. has carried out in-depth interviews with coaches of nine different elite sports across the world to gather a series of insights, which he has backed up by the. Importantly, the specific coaching context determines the required knowledge of coaches and athletes' outcomes, as the coach is required to meet athletes' needs and help to meet their specific goals [].Grassroots sport is defined as "physical leisure activity, organized and non-organized, practised regularly at non-professional level for health, educational or .

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